Domestication is a human-controlled evolutionary process which has been the cause of genetic, morphological and behavioural modifications necessary for the adaptation process to the human environment. Wolves and dogs have major phylogenetic as well as behavioural differences, to the extent that they can be considered as two distinct species. Recent studies have shown that adult dogs have specific adaptation patterns with regards to their owner: it is therefore possible to hypothesize a functional analogy (evolutionary convergence) with the child's attachment with the mother. In addition, thanks to a process of co-evolution, humans and dogs have a common communication pool: dogs seem to have some "special" skills for the understanding of human social and communication behaviour.
The information given by the Veterinarian at the time of adoption or during the first vaccination visit are intended to allow the puppy to enter properly into the family group and within the social/urban setting in which it lives. Education is a long-term project, which requires the development of a relationship between the members of the interspecific group. It is necessary to recall that destructive behaviours, vocalizations following separation from the human partner, inappropriate elimination and aggressiveness are not acts done out of revenge but are instead symptoms of a behavioural disorder. Should the breeder or owner notice one or more of these signs they should contact their Veterinarian or a Veterinarian expert in Animal Behaviour.
THE EDUCATIONAL PROJECT
The term ‘education’ derives from the Latin noun educatio [- onis. f.], which derives from the verb educere, composed of ex and ducere. The original meaning of the verb educere - to draw out, or to let out - was recently expanded to include the meaning to rear, to bring up or to grow, "[...] with particular reference to human beings in their infancy." The term ‘instruction’ is also related to the term ‘education’ and in recent years the concept of ‘training’ has also been added, meaning a short-term adaptation, compared to the longer and more complex process of education. Training is meant to provide to younger subjects a "[...] set of valid skills useful in the short term." Education has a broader meaning than instruction and training, as it also concerns life aspects that "[...] do not require a formalized learning process."
The fundamental role of education is to support the biological and intellectual development of the subject. It is a relational type of communication process; its goals are to define the basic socio-relational models, to promote proximal development and mechanisms of self-efficacy, to establish an appropriate emotional status and to acquire mechanisms of self-control, the learning of intra and interspecific social communication and to promote pro-sociality (Fig. 1). Thanks to the attachment bond, the puppy’s mother becomes the first referential centre. Following adoption, the human family integrates the educational contribution of the puppy’s mother, perfecting the basic learning process and increasing the puppy’s knowledge. The entire interspecific group is involved in this process: "[...] it is not the dog that must be able to do or not do something, it is the family-group as a whole that must be able to live its own interaction-integration in the various current or future contexts in which it finds itself." (Marchesini) It is worth recalling that food, water and shelter are indeed primary physiological needs for all living beings, but animals also have relational and behavioural needs. The establishment of a relationship is the tool to achieve the educational goal: the dog cannot be considered simply as a gregarious subject, it must be credited as a partner, as an individual subject, as a social partner, as a subject “different from me”. Thanks to these socio-collaborative capabilities, the dog participates actively in the relational dynamics of the family.
However, to make this encounter really possible, the human side must necessarily learn to pay attention to this “different-from-me” individual, avoiding, on the one hand, to consider the dog as an object or device that can only perform behaviours based on submission and, on the other, to consider it only through the projection of human needs (anthropomorphism), such as considering it only as a pet dog, guard dog and so on. The relationship with the animal cannot be just intuitive, meaning accessible through a simple projective process, it must be built day after day. Education, especially during the puppy’s developmental stages, must encourage the learning process so as to increase mental representations and induce cognitive flexibility.
To favour proximal personal relationship experiences the emotions generated by the learning process must be positive. We should not forget that emotions are situational markers: the subject tends to search for those circumstances in which positive emotions were experienced, such as joy. The educational process must be based on cognitive enrichment, not on inhibition, control and harassment. Managing any dog behaviour which is not accepted by the human partner by simply saying ‘No!’, or by ordering the animal to respond to commands such as to ‘sit’ or to ‘lie down’ to abort any initiative, in fact promotes in the subject the development of a competitive motivation. For example, to take away from the mouth of the puppy an object or a stone can exercise and favour the animal’s possessive and competitive motivation. In fact, the human being’s behaviour triggers in the dog the birth of an "imitative desire," meaning that impulse that stems when we notice that someone else gives value to an object that was previously of no particular interest to us. In addition, a vexatious (ordering the dog to let go of the object) or inhibitory (preventing the dog from taking an object) approach will result in increased possessive and defensive motivation in the animal.
The human referential centre should propose to the animal valid alternatives, so that the latter may opt - if properly guided - for a different behaviour, one more suited to the specific situation. For example, should the dog steal a slipper, the owner may draw the dog’s attention to another object, such as a toy that is usually used during the recreational activity of the interspecific couple. In this case, the educational goal is to allow the puppy/adult dog to focus its exploratory activity on objects "marked by positive emotions", as they are used in games that involve both the animal and the human being. Nonverbal (a smiling face, shoulders wide open, a relaxed posture, etc.) and verbal (typically ‘Good dog!’) messages will gratify the puppy/adult dog. The resulting newly acquired behaviour will favour the development of an appropriate emotional structure and the improvement of self-control.
The animal will thus develop self-control, without having to be continuously closely watched by the human partner. The imaginative projection, ‘educated dog’ = ‘an animal that behaves like the human partner wants’, is not the goal of the educational project. The qualities of the subject (motivation and vocation) must be governed and endorsed in order to foster, during growth, the personality and character of the individual. One of the main problems of contemporary education is the understanding of the relationship between ‘individualization’ and ‘socialization’: in reality these two objectives are complementary rather than contradictory. Goal of the educational project is also to facilitate the dog’s acceptance within human society, by respecting its rules and regulations. The term ‘training’ well illustrates this concept. It is a process that provides the animal with the tools that will allow it to move with competence in the relational context in which it will find itself (family, city, countryside). Any activity done with the animal will allow it to achieve both goals, while at the same time expanding harmoniously the relational dimension (affective area - taking care of -, social area - collaboration and cooperation -, play area, epistemic area - mutual understanding -, and so forth).
It is necessary to point out that to facilitate the dog’s learning - such as where to rest and what is the proper elimination behaviour, when is the time to eat or play, staying at home alone, etc. - the educational approach of the human referential centre needs to be authoritative and not authoritarian. The authoritarian style is characterized by rules imposed without any explanation. The authoritarian person frequently raises his or her voice, loses patience, does not accept any disobedience and any transgression is punished severely. The rules are rigid and unchangeable. The authoritative style does not necessarily mean the absence of rules: this educational approach tries to find the right balance between permissiveness and authoritarianism, establishing a few basic rules that are explained to the members of the group and agreed upon with them. Each family-system will therefore have its own rules, regulations and communication style. The educational project is consequently not valid in all pairs and must instead be built ad hoc.
THE TRAINING PROCESS
To train is a commonly used expression which means to instruct, to teach a particular skill. In terms of sports performance, the meaning is to prepare, to establish physical fitness, to instruct in order to master a specific activity. In human medicine, although many researchers have highlighted the existence of a large number of associations between genes and physical-sport performance, it is worth noticing that many of the genes associated with performance are not able alone to clearly predict if an athlete is potentially a winner or not: "[...] to the present day, in general, the determination of the genetic characteristics does not seem capable of making a final contribution in terms of discovering talent or in the programming of workouts which by exalting the genetic potential may allow the athlete to achieve results of excellence". Among the individuals of a specific population genes are responsible for about 50% of the variability of physical performance and of the response to training.
The training approach for sporting dogs is meant to achieve a specific performance: training activities must be as repetitive and as standardized as possible. The educational project and the training plan are not mutually exclusive, even if today their harmonization seems complex. Training is often seen as an anthropocentric programme, in which the human being is the point of reference and measurement, while the dog must adapt itself by appealing to its own resources. The motivation, vocation and emotions of the animal are not taken into account: the human partner chooses the activity based on personal desires and educates the dog in order to reach the human partner’s goals. In my opinion the training approach should be reviewed, at least for some dog sports disciplines; it should be interpreted in the light of the new knowledge acquired in the neurobiological and relational fields, with the goal of promoting the growth of the pair while respecting the personality of each of its members. In addition, the understanding of the physiology of the dog’s sensory organs (such as the diameter of the binocular visual field of dolichocephalic and brachycephalic breeds), of the neurobiology of the nervous system (such as learning and memory) and of the psychology of communication (such as proxemics, posture, kinetics and gestures) may be used to improve the performance of the pair.
For example, just as in giant slalom ski races - in which the competitors have access to the track and can study the ski run - it would be reasonable to allow also dogs, together with their conductors, to inspect the agility course. In this way, the pair would be able to create a cognitive map of the course, increase the coordination, share the "emotional tension", and so forth. Over the last few years a new discipline has become popular, sports psychology, a school of thought which has brought together different disciplines: psychology, psychology of work and organizations, psychiatry, medicine, sociology, pedagogy, physical education and many others. The achievement of good sporting results and, consequently, of a good athletic performance, requires good physical conditions, tactical and motor skills, an excellent emotional control and cognitive flexibility. All this could also be applied to the training necessary for dog sports activities.
TO EDUCATE OR TO TRAIN: PUNISHMENT AND EMOTIONS
Researchers have shown that when human beings and animals learn they develop representations, without any form of conditioning. Behaviours are based on emotions, motivation and emotional activation (arousal), followed by a motor action. All these factors then "develop" a motor, visual, acoustic, somesthestic or taste representation. The concept of Positive Reinforcement should therefore be reviewed, as the application of the laws of Operating Conditioning only strengthen those behaviours which are independent of motivation/emotion/arousal, which are instead fundamental. The "prize" (gratification) should be given/shown when the motivational and emotional status of the subject allow it to reach an intermediate state of arousal... even a few minutes after the end of an educational session! I personally believe that we should instead abandon the use of Negative Reinforcement (elimination of adversative stimuli, such as teaching to ’Sit’ first by “hanging" the dog and then by releasing traction when the animal performs the command) and of Positive Punishment (appearance of an adversative stimulus which can cause pain), as they generate negative emotions (linked to fear) that not only hinder learning but may also favour the onset of aggressive behaviour as the dog’s primary form of communication. It is in my opinion not possible to identify a threshold below which Positive Punishment can be declared tolerable: violence is always unacceptable and violates the subject’s rights to respect for one’s physical and mental integrity. Animals are not only sentient beings, they are also subjects with full rights and must be respected as such, avoiding the use of violence, which today can not be considered admissible as an educational approach. "Punishment can be the cause of physical and psychological effects and teach children (and animals, Ed.) that violence is an acceptable method, suitable to solve conflicts or to get what we want. Beating a child (or a dog, Ed.) teaches the use of violence as a way to resolve conflicts, becoming a significant factor in the development of violent behaviours, both in childhood and in adulthood. Instead, to banish any form of violence and to promote a positive discipline based on love and on authority strengthens the role of the parent and attenuates tensions in the family context "(wwwsavethechildren.it.). Bekoff states that "... such trauma is likely to have long-term repercussions, as is the case when an individual suffers violence, both if it is inflicted with intent ... or if it is suffered for accidental causes. It is now proven that also dogs, like humans and other animals, may (as a result of a traumatic, catastrophic or violent event), manifest symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and chronic depression. Techniques based on violence and on positive punishment should therefore not be tolerated and should be firmly contrasted".
Suggested reading
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2. C. Mège, E. Beaumont – Graff, C. Béata, C. Diaz, T. Habran, N. Marlois, G. Muller. Patologia comportamentale del cane, Masson s. p. a ed EV s. r. l, Milano/Cremona, prima edizione; 2006.
3. C. Palestrini, E. Prato Previde. Frequenza cardiaca e risposte comportamentali nella Strange Situation Test: uno studio pilota; 2005.
4. M. Bekoff. Dalla parte degli animali, Franco Muzzio Editore, 2003.
5. M. Lebreton, S. Kawa et al. Your goal is mine: unraveling mimetic desires in the human brain. The Journal of Neuroscience 2012;32(21):7146-7157.
6. M. Lipoma, D. Di Corrado, S. Di Nuovo, V. Perciavall. Attentional styles and sport performance. Ital J Sport Sci 2006: 13:11-15.
7. R. Colangeli, S. Giussani. Medicina del comportamento del cane e del gatto, Poletto Editore, Gaggiano; 2005.
8. R. Marchesini. Canone di zooantropologia applicata, Apèiron Editoria e Comunicazione S. r. l., Bologna, 2004.
9. R. Marchesini. Pedagogia cinofila. Introduzione all’approccio zooantropologico, Alberto Perdisa Editore, Bologna; 2007.
10. R. Marchesini. Intelligenze plurime, manuale di scienze cognitive animali, Alberto Perdisa Editore, Bologna; 2008.
11. S.Giussani. Arriva un cucciolo, come comportarsi. Rivista di Veterinaria e Zoologia, 2012.
12. P. Pageat. La patologia comportamentale del cane, Edizione Le Point Veterinaire Italie Milano; 2000.
13. U. Galimberti. Dizionario di psicologia, UTET, Torino; 2000.
14. Vona G, Massidda M, Cireddu M, Calò C. Genetica e performance sportiva. Ital J Sport Sci 2005;12:105-115.
15. WG, Hopkins. Genes and training for athletic performance. Sportscience 5, 1 sportsci.org/jour/0101/wghgene.htm, 2001.