Dog breeds: the point of view of behavioural medicine

Where did humans and the dog encounter? Humans encountered wolves, not dogs. Dogs are, therefore, the result of the encounter and not the partner of the encounter. Moreover, it is appropriate to question whether humans (as we conceive them) are also the outcome of such encounter rather than the partner of the encounter (R. Marchesini). Current knowledge about the social nature of wolves has contributed to clarifying the preference of primitive humans for this species over other species, such as jackals or coyotes. In fact, coyotes live in couples, do not have a social structure, and neither their facial expressions nor their postural communication are similar to those of humans. In addition, they hunt small prey whose meat would hardly have been sufficient to feed human families. For millennia humans and wolves have contended for the same hunting territory as enemies and competitors.

The research so far has not shed light on the dynamics of the encounter: did humans approach wolves, or vice versa? Moreover, an encounter alone is insufficient to explain the domestication of dogs. For such an alliance and affiliation to become operative a process of adoption is necessary. Adoption results from an epimeletic behaviour on the part of the adopter and an et-epimeletic recognisability on the part of the adoptable animal (R. Marchesini). The most accredited theories suggest that the adoptable animal may have been found near a camp or during a hunt. The self-domestication theory proposed by R. and L. Coppinger maintains that in the Mesolithic period wolves approached the village and benefited from the selective advantage associated with lower mortality. The mothering theory (that primitive women suckled orphaned pups) suggests instead that during the Palaeolithic period a man picked up a wolf cub and a woman breastfed it, because herbivores had not yet been domesticated  (R. Marchesini).

All this suggests that the process of domestication of dogs differs from that of other animals, as it did not occur depending on the performance requirements dictated by the geographical area.

Research carried out on mitochondrial DNA by C. Vilà et al. (1999) places the process of domestication of dogs at about 135,000 years ago, while P. Savolainen et al. (2002) places it at around 40,000 years ago. The presence of dogs increased the safety of family groups: at night dogs acted as sentinels, during the day they collaborated in hunting and defending the group during moves. In the Palaeolithic period dogs influenced the lifestyle of humans to such a degree that, according to Allmann, the presence of this animal fostered the assertion of Sapiens over Neanderthals. This co-evolution had the effect of improving hunting methods, allowing a richer diet and an increase in reproduction, which resulted in an expansion of both humans and dogs.

DOMESTICATION AND BREEDS

The concepts of  domesticating, taming and subduing are often confused with the process of domestication. Domestication differs from the other terms because it entails a break from the gene pool of the population of the progenitor and implies  both an ontogenetic and a phylogenetic hybridisation. Among the various necessary parameters, domestication requires the capability of the animal to reproduce once removed from its ecological niche. The new selection guidelines therefore become anthropocentric: it is man who is in control of the reproduction parameters (anthropocentric selection pressure).

The more the et-epimeletic traits persist in the adult, the more the individuals will be able to evoke care and care-giving in humans, thereby increasing the chances of survival and reproduction. Moreover, primitive man selected docility, submissiveness, a low tendency to escaping, tolerance to manipulation and collaborative skills. Primordial dogs were smaller than wolves and had a shorter muzzle than wolves. The size of the encephalon was 20% smaller: the difference was mainly due to a reduction in sensory areas, as happens in most domestic animals. Unlike wolves, dogs tend to retain some juvenile characteristics (neoteny) or present characters that mimic juvenile traits (pseudoneoteny) (R. Marchesini).

Controlled mating resulted in the creation of breeds, i.e. extremely homogeneous populations within a given species, originating from the will of man (B. Gallicchio). There have been distinct periods of selection. Initially selection was empirical and based on an aptitude for work; there was little interest in morphology and breeding animals were tested in the field. Then, thanks to standardisation (see table), the interest in aesthetics increased: in the Victorian era breeding began to move toward anomalies or peculiarities, which acquired value as symbols of quality and prestige.

This led to the creation, in 1822, of pedigrees and the Breed Book, in which subjects were identified with a name and number. Around the 1930s selection lost interest in the behaviour of the breed: divergence from the primitive type became significant and consanguinity continued to increase. The critical phase thus began, characterized by an alteration in reproduction, a high frequency of hereditary diseases, a high infant mortality rate and reduced longevity (genetic mistreatment). A striking example of this is constituted by the German Shepherd breed, in which there is currently a marked difference in terms of aesthetics and behaviour between show line and working line German Shepherd dogs. The morphological variation led to modifications in certain motivations (e.g. collaboration and concentration were lost) and resulted in an increase of arousal (or emotional activation).

The breeds thus selected were classified by different methods, among which:

• conventional morphological classification (basic types: Lupoid, Braccoid, Molossoid, Graioid);
• specialized and non-specialized breeds;
• classification of the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI), which identifies ten groups, each of which includes various breeds;
• Anglo-Saxon classification (sporting/gundogs, hounds, working dogs, terriers, toy dogs, non-sporting/utility dogs, herding/guarding, miscellaneous).

MOTIVATION AND VOCATION

Motivationsare dispositions of orientation towards a target or a behavioural expression (R. Marchesini). They indicate the orientation of the subject towards the external world and define "what the subject seeks in the world" (sensitivity to particular stimuli) and "what the subject intends to do" (the tendency to express a certain behaviour). Motivations are a phylogenetic inheritance: they have an adaptive value for the survival of the species and are related to natural selection, not to learning processes. Each species, in fact, is born with a motivational inheritance of tendencies to express particular behaviours.

Behaviouristshave ignored the concept of motivation, considering only physiological needs or requirements for maintenance of the body (eating, drinking, sleeping, breathing, etc.). Classical ethology, however, considers motivation as a form of energy which is to be vented through a behaviour (psychoenergetic theory). In the cognitive approach, the mind works in a systemic and non-analytic manner: from the neurobiological standpoint, motivation is explained in terms of sets of neurons (or groups of interconnected neurons) which activate a cascade of physiological events, causing the expression of a behaviour (kinaesthetic repertoire and a body state). The cognitive approach considers motivation a complex activation that also involves other cognitive components, such as emotions (basic reactive responses induced by the environment and by mental states, the fundamental components of the learning process) and arousal (level of emotional activation) (R. Marchesini).

The neural sets that characterize motivations are subject to neuronal Darwinism: the more a motivation is stimulated, the stronger it will become. Motivations are, therefore, strengthened ontogenetically: the predominance of one motivational set over another depends on the ontogenetic development of the subject. For example, throwing a ball over and over again, the owner "will not vent" the need of the dog to chase moving objects and thus decrease the predatory motivation. On the contrary, it will increase its “volume”, promoting the appearance of a chasing behaviour aimed at cyclists, runners and so on.

The prevailing motivations indicate the vocational spectrum of the individual, i.e. what the animal is interested in. In addition, each breed has certain motivations that are emphasized and others that are neglected: this structure indicates the vocation of a breed, i.e. that to which the dog is predisposed (R. Marchesini). In some breeds, synergistic motivations (whereby a given motivation acts to reinforce another) and contrasting motivations (a given motivation acts to inhibit another) overlap and provide a substrate for emotional fragility. This happens for example in the Dalmatian, hunter and coach guard, or in the Dobermann, hunter of mice, horse guard and defender of postilions on the road.

Canine pedagogy and behavioural therapy also ​​"act" on the motivations of the individual, modifying the volume or providing a framework (context) for the motivation itself. It should be noted that motivations can neither be deleted or added, however their volume can be changed within the positional set of the subject, by acting on stimulation, practice, gratification and so forth. In order to modify a strong motivation, it must be related to a target (a context, such as a kinaesthetic representation), while a neglected motivation can be potentiated through stimulation, practice and gratification (working at the same time on emotional balance and arousal).

The main types of canine motivation are predatory, stashing (collecting items and taking them into the kennel or a hiding place), social, exploratory, territorial, agonistic, possessive, collaborative, playful and epimeletic (helping to care for a companion). An important pedagogical goal consists in broadening the motivational horizon of the subject, in order to promote behaviours that are suitable for today's society. When working on motivation in an educational or therapeutic setting, it should be recalled that one must seek the motivational consent of the individual, without making the error of using imperative or coercive techniques. Motivations are the driving force of the behaviour of an individual: if an activity is supported by a motivation, the activity is “desired”; if an activity does not have this support, or if it is additionally faced with dissent, the activity becomes a “duty”. Desired activities encourage and strengthen the relationship with the owner (R. Marchesini). Moreover, each situation experienced by the dog ​​is associated with an emotion that puts the body in the best conditions to deal with it. For this reason it is important to link each learning experience to positive emotions.

SPECIALIZED AND NON-SPECIALIZED BREEDS

The following section focuses on the classification of specialized and non-specialized breeds, as this classification fits better with the application of the concepts of motivation and vocation. The characteristics of the currently most widely spread groups are also described.

The behaviour of specialized breeds has been subjected to selection with the goal of emphasizing certain specific aptitudes (E. Garoni). The skills sought are based on the amplified and ritualised predatory motivation. The specialized breeds include:

• Livestock Herding dogs (German Shepherd, Belgian Shepherd, Border Collie, Australian Shepherd, etc.);
• Pointers (Bracco Italiano, Spinone Italiano, German Shorthaired Pointer, Epagneul Breton, Pointer, Setter and Cocker Spaniel, etc.);
• Retrievers (Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Flat Coated, Curly Coated, Chesapeake Retriever);
• Sled dogs (Siberian Husky, Alaskan Malamute, Greenlanders);
• Terriers(Parson Jack Russell Terrier, West Highland Terrier, Yorkshire Terrier, Fox Terrier, Bull Terrier, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, etc.);
• Molossus dogs (Neapolitan Mastiff, Cane Corso, Dogue de Bordeaux, Boxer, Rottweiler, Dogo Argentino, English Bulldog, Mastiff, Great Dane, etc.).

In livestock herding dogs, selectionhas fostered a collaborative motivation (E. Garoni). The dog, in most cases following the indications of a handler, guides a flock/herd by means of its mouth (e.g. Cattle dogs), voice (e.g. the Bergamasco Shepherd) or gaze (the Australian Shepherd). The individuals in this group are characterized by pronounced collaborative, predatory, exploratory, territorial and interspecific and intraspecific social motivation. Thedefensive motivation is, instead, weak. With regard to the spectrum of vocations, this group is characterized by an important:

• social bond with heterospecific animals;
• predatory activity (even in play);
• mission of responsibility;
• collaboration with a handler.  

As far as concerns the vocation of maintenance of possession, there is considerable breed variability. In addition, the arousal of these individuals is high because they must constantly pay attention to the movement of the livestock.

In terms of canine pedagogy, the training should promote:

• collaboration in achieving a set goal (self-accreditation for the individual and basis of the relationship with the owner), and learning to concentrate/wait (to control arousal);
• exploration, in order to acquire information about the environment and learning to concentrate/wait (to control arousal);
• exploration, in order to acquire information about their own body and learning to concentrate/wait (to control arousal).

Moreover, it is fundamental not to frustrate social motivation (e.g. by isolating a German Shepherd dog in a large garden) and not to encourage the predatory motivation (e.g. by throwing objects).

Retrievers come from the Newfoundland breed. They are specialists in finding and retrieving hunted game. For this reason, retrievers are great hunters: their sense of smell is highly developed, as is their perseverance in following the trail until recovery (B. Gallicchio). Individuals of this group are characterized by high predatory, exploratory, stashing, collaborative, inter- and intraspecific social motivations. It should be emphasized that the predatory motivation is gratifying in itself: the dog is not rewarded by the words “Good dog” but by the retrieval itself. Additionally, collaboration allows completion of the predatory sequence by using the words "Let go". Defensive and territorial motivations in this group are weak. As regards the spectrum of vocations, this group is characterized by marked:

• olfactory exploration;
• predatory activity (even in play);
• social bonding with conspecific and heterospecific animals;
• tendency to maintain possession;
• collaboration with a handler.  

The arousal of these dogs is high, as they must continue to look for injured or killed game by following the scent trail in moist soil or water. In terms of canine pedagogy, the training should promote:

• exploration, in order to acquire information about the environment and learning to concentrate/wait (to control arousal);
• exploration, in order to acquire information about their own body and learning to concentrate/wait (to control arousal);
• collaboration in achieving a set goal (self-accreditation for the individual and the basis of the relationship with the owner) and learning to concentrate/wait (to control arousal);

Moreover, it is essential not to encourage the predatory motivation (e.g. by throwing objects) or the autonomous retrieval of target objects, in order to discourage the oral exploration of the objects.

Terriers derive from bloodhounds: they chase a wild animal into its underground lair, grab it and bring it to the outside. They are highly combative, to the point of taking on prey larger than themselves. Individuals in this group have strong predatory, exploratory, and possessive motivations. In contrast, defensive, collaborative and inter- and intraspecific social motivations are weak. With regard to the spectrum of vocations, this group is characterized by marked:

• olfactory exploration;
• predatory activity (even in play);
• tendency to maintain possession (they need not retrieve something but extract it);
• inter- and intraspecific competitiveness.

Collaboration with the owner or defence of a territory have never been required of terriers. The arousal of these individuals is high: they have an excitable emotional profile. In terms of canine pedagogy, the training should promote:

• collaboration in achieving a set goal (the basis of the relationship with the owner) and learning to delegate responsibility (search and let go);
• collaboration, in order to learn to concentrate/wait (to control arousal);
• exploration, in order to acquire information about the environment and learning to concentrate/wait (to control arousal);
• exploration, in order to acquire information about their own body and learning to concentrate/wait (to control arousal).

Moreover, it is essential not to frustrate the exploratory motivation and not to encourage the predatory motivation (e.g. by throwing objects) or competitiveness.

Molossus dogs  (mastiffs) originate from mountain dogs (now defined Molossoids), a term probably derived from the Latin word “mansata”  meaning 'dog belonging to the house'. The legacy of guard sheep dogs is still evident today. In fact, most breeds were used to keep more impetuous livestock, such as pigs, at bay. Moreover, there are descriptions of large mastiffs used to hunt the lion and the wild ass among the Assyrians, or as combat dogs to fight dismounted soldiers and their horses (B. Gallicchio). Individuals in this group have a strong defence motivation (to protect resources and human beings), as well as territorial, competitive and possessive (with objects) motivations. In contrast, their collaborative, exploratory and inter-and intraspecific social motivations are weak. With regard to the spectrum of vocations, this group is characterized by marked:

• defence of the territory;
• tendency to maintain possession;
• interspecific competitiveness.

It should be pointed out that the Boxers and the Rottweilers are currently extraordinary working dogs despite the small volume of collaborative motivation. Their arousal and emotional profile are low. In terms of canine pedagogy, the training should promote:

• collaboration in achieving a set goal (the basis of the relationship with the owner) and learning to delegate responsibility (asking its owner for permission to start an action);
• collaboration, in order to learn to wait;
• exploration, in order to acquire information about the environment and learning how to look for and flush out (in order to control defence and possession);
• exploration, in order to acquire information about the environment and learn to concentrate/wait;
• exploration, in order to acquire information about their own body and learn to concentrate/wait. 

It is essential to discipline the motivations right from the moment of adoption, in order to enhance collaborative skills and thus avoid conflicts in the human-dog group upon social maturation.

Non-specialized breedsoriginate from village dogs. Their motivations and vocations are associated with hunting and protection and are normally exercised. This is why the handler does not need to have any special skills (E. Garoni). The non-specialized breeds include:

• Hounds (Italian Hounds, German Hounds, Dachshunds, Beagles, Bloodhounds, etc.);
• Primitive Greyhounds (Cirneco dell'Etna, Pharaoh Hound, Podengo Ibicenco, Portuguese Podengo, Hairless Dog Group);
• Guard and herding dogs (Maremma-Abruzzes Shepherd, Bergamasco Shepherd, Caucasian Shepherd, Pyrenean Mountain Dog, Bernese Mountain Dog, etc.).

Hunting dogs (bloodhound) search, flush out, chase, catch and sometimes kill prey. The chase is characterized by the use of the voice with which the dogs announce the chase; this helps to maintain contact with the hunter. This is the most primitive and natural method of hunting for dogs (B. Gallicchio). Bloodhounds work in packs and their agonistic behaviour is poorly developed. The task of the hunter is merely to instigate the initial excitatory choreography: the dog, at a later time, chases the wild animal, and is in turn followed by the hunter. Bloodhounds do not need to learn from humans what to chase and how to do it; they learn mainly from other dogs. In addition, if they grow up amid barnyard fowls these will not be hunted in the future (E. Garoni).

Individuals in this group have strong predatory, exploratory and social motivation, especially intraspecific. In contrast, their territorial, defence and collaborative motivations are weak (in fact, the hunter just gives the dog the "Go" signal). With regards to the spectrum of vocations, dogs in this group have a strong predatory motivation (tendency to seek, flush out, chase, capture and kill prey). The arousal of these individuals is high: they have an excitable emotional profile, sensitive to the choreography that begins the hunt. In terms of canine pedagogy, the training should promote:

• collaboration in achieving a set goal (the basis of the relationship with the owner);
• collaboration, in order to focus the dog’s attention centrally  (the dog's attention should be on the owner and not on the surrounding environment);
• collaboration, in order to learn to concentrate/wait (to control arousal);
• exploration, in order to acquire information about their own body and learning to concentrate/wait (to control arousal).
• possession and defence, in order to reduce the tendency to search for and flush out prey.

Moreover, it is essential not to frustrate their exploratory and social motivation, as the innate behavioural patterns related to their life "in packs" are very strong.

The origin of guard and herding dogs dates back to the pastoral era. These dogs grow up and always live within the flock/herd, to the point that they consider the herd animals part of their social group. Training is the responsibility of the adult dogs already within the group, while humans have little to do with the dogs themselves. Guard and herding dogs move with the flock/herd: they alert, defend and threaten. They do not hunt, kill or eat the animals with which they have been raised (E. Garoni). Individuals in this group have strong territorial, defensive and possessive motivations. However, their collaborative, predatory and exploratory motivations are weak. With regard to the spectrum of vocations, this group is characterized by marked:

• defence of the territory;
• distrust of outsiders (human beings);
• social bond with conspecifics;
• decision-making autonomy.

Their arousal and emotional profile are weak. In terms of canine pedagogy, the training should promote:

• collaboration in achieving a set goal (the basis of the relationship with the owner) and learning to delegate responsibility (asking its owner for permission to start an action);
• collaboration in order to learn to wait;
• exploration, in order to acquire information about the environment and learning how to look for and flush out prey (in order to control defence and possession);
• exploration, in order to acquire information about the environment and learning to concentrate/wait;
• exploration, in order to acquire information about their own body and learning to concentrate/wait.

Gratification by voice, touch and food is not very important to these dogs. The training process involves trying to transform the reward into a waiting time ("Wait") which, when met, allows realization of the behaviour desired by the dog. It is essential to discipline the motivations right from the moment of adoption in order to enhance the collaborative skills and thus avoid conflicts (difficult to resolve) in the human-dog group upon social maturation. In addition, defence and social motivations should not be frustrated.

CONCLUSIONS

The training process begins as soon as the pup has been adopted: the goal of canine ​​pedagogy is to allow the harmonious development of the individual. It is essential, therefore, to exercise the high volume motivations and to train the depressed ones, in order to transform vocations into talents and avoid fixations.

It should be noted that learning does not complete innate traits but gives form to the individual. This is why the stronger a vocation is, the greater the need for learning or exercise.

Knowledge of the motivational-vocational  repertoire of different breeds allows the veterinarian to provide owners with basic information about the “character” of the subject they want to adopt. In addition, the pedagogical view enables better dialogue between the veterinarian and the dog trainer: the veterinarian can outline the profile of an individual animal during a puppy education session and provide the guidelines of the pedagogical process to be carried out by the dog trainer.

Suggested readings

1. Proceedings of the II Edizione Corso Educatori CinOfili, May 2006 – May 2007, organized by SIUA.
2. Gallicchio B. Lupi Travestiti, le Origini Biologiche del Cane Domestico. Edizioni Cinque, Biella, 2001.
3. Clutton–Brock J.Storia Naturale della Domesticazione dei Mammiferi. Bollati Boringhieri Editoria S.r.l., Torino, 2001.
4. Marchesini R. L’identità del Cane. Apèiron Editoria e Comunicazione S.r.l., Bologna, 2004.
5. Marchesini R. Pedagogia Cinofila Introduzione all’Approccio Cognitivo Zooantropologico. Alberto Perdisa Editore, Bologna, 2007.