Physical growth and the acquisition of behaviours that allow kittens and puppies to adapt to their surroundings and to the group in which they live are linked to the development of the nervous system and to environmental stimuli. The notion of behavioural development represents an innovative concept based on the acceptance of animal psychism and, consequently, of emotions. The attachment bond in the cat and dog seems to be essential to complete physical growth and for maturation of the individual psyche. The quality of the attachment, in fact, may constitute a factor of vulnerability, especially with regard to the emotional responses which will be subsequently exhibited by the adult.
A French veterinarian recently subjected some puppies to an experience similar to that of the Strange Situation developed by Mary Ainsworth in the 1960s. The studies conducted showed the presence of a "bond" with the human figure, since the newborn, when in a difficult context, seeks direct contact.Despite the commitment of the human figure, however, in the absence of the "real mother" it is difficult to ensure the proper evolution of the stages of the individual’s emotional development. The achieved attachment will often be uncertain, as the "adoptive parents" belong to another species: the channels of communication are different and the "maternal sensitivity" is difficult to achieve. In subjects raised for the first two months of life without a mother figure of the same species, each adverse event may create a negative experience which is difficult to overcome. Moreover, during the pubescent period some subjects may lose their ability to socialise with humans and cats often become intolerant to physical contact, even with the same human subjects who raised them.
ATTACHMENT THEORY
The theory of attachment proposed in the 1950s by John Bowlby emphasises the importance of the child's first relational experiences. At the basis of this theory are the works of Lorenz and Harlow as well as the critique of psychoanalysis. Objectivistic ethology describes the "following behaviour" phenomenon: the newly hatched geese line up behind the mother (or a substitute of it) and show "anguish", peeping, when they are separated, even though they are able to provide themselves with food. The bond, therefore, is independent of nutrition. In "The Nature of Love", Harlow showed in a series of experiments that newborns of Rhesus monkeys separated at birth from their mother exhibited a stronger preference for a puppet covered with soft fabric than for a "nursing" puppet. Feeding, therefore, is independent of the bond. Bowlby, opposing Freud's psychoanalytic theory of secondary drive and the behaviourist concept of conditioned reflex (Note: "in which the mother figure becomes associated with hunger-thirst"), suggested that "the biological function of attachment is protection, especially from predators”.
THE SAFE BASE
Thanks to the replication of the Strange Situation, Mary Ainsworth described the "safe base effect": the attachment figure is fulfilling and represents the starting point of knowledge of the world. In fact, a balance exists between attachment behaviour and exploratory behaviour: in a situation of alarm the attachment behaviour is activated while the exploratory behaviours are deactivated (Fig. 1). When the reference figure is "back again", the individual is satisfied and the exploration of the surrounding territory is again activated. During experiments carried out with Rhesus monkey newborns, Harlow noted that the baby monkey explores new objects introduced into the cage in the presence of the substitute mother, while it remains immobile in the absence of the puppet. According to Bowlby, the "attachment theory” is, therefore, "a spatial theory: when I'm around people I love, I feel good, whereas when I'm far away, I'm sad and alone."
THE CONCEPT OF MATERNAL SENSITIVITY
With the term "maternal sensitivity" B. Pierrehumbert emphasises the mother's ability to sense and respond "correctly and in a synchronised manner" to the needs of the newborns. Newborns with a sure attachment during theStrange Situation emit signals, especially in the first year of life, that are readily detected by the reference figure. The relational history with the mother, therefore, allows the newborn to build "the safe base effect".
THE ATTACHMENT BOND
The attachment bond differentiates itself from other social relations because there is the search for proximity to a reference figure, the "safe base" effect and protest in case separation. Lorenz observed a marked monotropism in birds, while studies on primates conducted by Rutter suggested that imprinting is not a process of "all or nothing". Attachment is achieved progressively and gradually, to the extent that Bowlby identified in the child the presence of multiple attachments, even if there is a tendency to prefer a specific reference figure among many. To find and to recognise the attachment figure is essential for the survival of the newborn. The Authors concur in saying that there is no innate recognition of the attachment figure. The attachment relationship allows, therefore, an important evolutional plasticity since the newborn is capable of being “adopted” also by a mother of a different species.
RESILIENCE
The term resilience was initially used in physics to define one of the properties of matter: the resistance to pressure. This concept was later applied to psychiatry, to indicate the resistance of a human being to the traumatic experiences of life. Resilience allows not only to "withstand the blow", but also to learn new adaptive strategies thanks to the resources that depend on the inherent characteristics of each individual and on the information that can be drawn from life. According to Cyrulnik, “the resilience in the child is built thanks to the creation of relations with others, a sort of transformation” of the attachment relationship. Also in the cat and dog, an uncertain attachment is considered a decisive element in the appearance of disorders such as an anxious, depressive state or mood swings. The quality of attachment can therefore highlight a "trend"; a deterministic type ofbond must however be avoided.
ADOPTION AND APPEASEMENT PHEROMONES
In the neonatal period, thanks to the presence of neuroendocrine (sex steroids), mechanical (vaginal stimulation) and olfactive (the presence of adoption pheromones in the amniotic fluid) factors, an attachment bond is established between the mother and the newborn that allows the implementation of parental care. Some hormones such as oxytocin, prolactin and growth hormones also seem to be involved. In this period the attachment bond is not reciprocal: for puppies the mother is a source of warmth and food, however they do not specifically require "that particular mother". The reciprocity of the bond will appear later, between the second and third week of life of the newborn, during the transition phase. From this time on the separation from the mother triggers (in both the puppies and the mother) a profound state of anxiety, characterised by lamentation, change in sleep patterns and anorexia.
Apaisine is an appeasement pheromone produced by the sebaceous glands present in the region of the intermammary groove in the cat and dog, in the medial aspect of the thigh in the horse and in the areola of the nipples in humans. This pheromone facilitates the development of the newborn-mother primary attachment. The mother becomes a reference point, a reassuring figure around which they start their first explorations and near whom the newborns can sleep piled on one another. Upon the discovery of the surrounding environment, following the perception of a situation of danger the puppy tends to approach the mother. In addition, according to G. Bateson, the mother is also a "point of reference", a teacher of life. During this period of behavioural development, gravitating around the figure of the mother, apaisine stabilises the emotional response of the newborn, tranquilising it and allowing it to resume the “star” pattern exploratory behaviour.
Thanks to this exploration the memorisation of objects, sounds and smells becomes possible, thus creating “the data bank of the individual” and the consequent sensory homeostasis.Moreover, the puppy also recognises in its kin its future social and sexual partners, learns self-control (inhibited bite, nail retraction control in the kitten and motor control) and the "rules of communication". Following separation, after weaning, the role of mother changes, and the puppy is deprived of the appeasement provided by apaisine. This is followed by a period of stress and search for a new bond within the social group of belonging. Recent studies have shown that the attachment bond has individual differences within the same litter. The presence of anomalous olfactory messages, caused for example by the death of a foetus or by a caesarean section, may result in the separation of the newborn.
BEHAVIOURAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUPPIES AND KITTENS
Behavioural development begins already at endouterinelevel: around the 21st day of gestation in the cat and the 45th day in the dog the embryo acquires the tactile competence that allows it to perceive the emotions of the mother. The neonatal period is followed by the transition and the socialisation period: the nervous cells of the newborn develop tumultuously and a chaotic, undifferentiated synaptic network is formed, which is incompatible with the survival of the individual. In fact, only the synapses that are repeatedly "activated" by experiences will remain functional (Fig. 2). During each stage, the individual acquires and integrates all that is necessary to create its behavioural repertoire.
THE ORPHAN KITTEN
It is appropriate for the Veterinarian to follow step by step the behavioural development of the kitten by providing appropriate advice to the owner.
0 - 10/15 days
• An artificial heat source should be used with the aim of maintaining the central temperature of the kittens constant;
• Feeding of the kittens (at different intervals depending on the age of the kittens) should be done respecting the sleep-wake cycle;
• The kitten and the teat of the milk bottle should be put in a position similar to what occurs in nature;
• Bowel evacuation should be stimulated (by delicately massaging the anus and the genital organs with a moist cotton pad) several times a day;
• Kittens should be manipulated for long periods of time to reproduce the “licking behaviour” of the mother;
• The kitten should be kept in contact with a person’s body as long as possible in the 24 hours;
• The living environment should be enriched (sound, visual and tactile stimuli).
10/15 - 30 days
• It is necessary not to respond immediately to the feeding demands of kittens, but rather to wait a few minutes before feeding them;
• Kittens should be manipulated for long periods of time to reproduce the “licking behaviour” of the mother;
• The kittens should be left by themselves during the day for maximum a few hours;
• An educator, i.e. an adult cat (a male and/or a female) should be put with the kittens for a few hours a day;
• The kitten should be put in contact with human beings (men, women, children);
• The living environment should be enriched (sound, visual and tactile stimuli).
30 - 50 days
• Contact should be interrupted when the kitten begins to play pulling out its claws or chewing things;
• On these occasions, the kitten should be tranquillised using a gentle tone of voice and avoiding gestures;
• It is critical to stimulate the evacuation of urine and faeces after each meal by placing the kitten in the litter box (helping it to dig in the litter and to cover its waste);
• An educator, i.e. an adult cat (a male and/or female) should be put with the kitten for a few hours a day;
• Kittens should be manipulated for long periods of time to reproduce the “licking behaviour” of the mother;
• The kitten should be put in contact with human beings (men, women, children);
• The living environment should be enriched (sound, visual and tactile stimuli).
50 - 90 days
• Learning of self-control should be worked-on by stimulating peaceful games (problem solving);
• Learning of the correct elimination behaviour should be worked-on;
• The separation ability should be improved;
• Kittens should be manipulated for long periods of time;
• The kitten should be put into contact with human beings (men, women, children);
• The living environment should be enriched (sound, visual and tactile stimuli).
THE ORPHAN PUPPY
It is appropriate for the Veterinarian to follow step by step the behavioural development of the puppy by providing appropriate advice to the owner.
0 - 10/15 days
• An artificial heat source should be used with the aim of maintaining the central temperature of the puppies constant;
• Feeding of the puppies (at different intervals depending on the age of the puppies) should be done respecting the sleep-wake cycle;
• The puppy and the teat of the milk bottle should be put in a position similar to what occurs in nature;
• Bowel evacuation should be stimulated (by delicately massaging the anus and the genital organs with a moist cotton pad) several times a day; this operation should necessarily be done by putting the puppy in the supine position, so as to establish the basis for the acquisition of the future posture of submission;
• Puppies should be manipulated for long periods of time to reproduce the “licking behaviour” of the mother;
• The kitten should be kept in contact with a person’s body as long as possible in the 24 hours;
• The living environment should be enriched (sound, visual and tactile stimuli).
10/ 15 – 30 days
• It is necessary not to respond immediately to the feeding demands of puppies, but rather wait a few minutes before feeding them;
• The puppies should be manipulated for long periods of time to reproduce the “licking behaviour” of the mother;
• The puppies should be left by themselves during the day for maximum a few hours;
• An educator, i.e. an adult dog (a female and/or a male) should be put with the puppies for a few hours a day;
• The puppy should be put into contact with human beings (men, women, children, the elderly);
• The living environment should be enriched (sound, visual and tactile stimuli).
1 month - 3 months
• Contact should be interrupted when the puppy begins to play by chewing things (Fig. 3);
• On these occasions, the puppy should be tranquillised using a gentle tone of voice and avoiding gestures;
• An educator, i.e. an adult dog (a female and/or a male) should be used to favour the learning of communication;
• To encourage the learning of elimination behaviour the puppy should be brought outdoors many times a day and rewarded after every correctly executed evacuation;
• The puppy should be put into contact with human beings (men, women, children, the elderly);
• The puppy should enter into contact with conspecific animals;
• The living environment should be enriched (sound, visual and tactile stimuli).
3 months - 5 months
• The learning of self-control should be worked-on by stimulating peaceful games (problem solving);
• Learning of the correct elimination behaviour should be worked-on;
• The separation ability should be improved;
• The puppies should be manipulated for long periods of time;
• The puppy should be put into contact with human beings (men, women, children, the elderly);
• The puppy should enter into contact with conspecific animals;
• The living environment should be enriched (sound, visual and tactile stimuli).
CONCLUSIONS
The role carried out by the Veterinarian is fundamental in order to promote the correct physical growth and psychological maturation of orphans. It is advisable to remember that emotional and behavioural development is fostered by the presence of several puppies and kittens: learning is facilitated and tactile stimuli are augmented by the “group effect” (Fig. 4). An insecure attachment is considered, also in the cat and dog, a decisive factor in the onset of diseases, such as a state of anxiety, depression and mood swings. It is therefore necessary to follow with great care the kitten and the puppy during their behavioural development in order to prevent the emergence of behavioural disorders.
Suggested readings
- Béata C. -“L’attachement, racine de l’équilibre et de la pathologie comportementale “ - Mémoire pour l’obtention du titre de Vétérinaire Comportementaliste des ENV Françaises 1999
- Béata C. – “ L’attachement chez le chien“ – Atti del Corso Avanzato di Medicina Comportamentale, Cremona 2003
- Giffroy J. M. – “L’apprentissage et ses applications “ - Actes de Cours de Formation pour l’obtention du titre de Vétérinaire Comportementaliste des ENV Française. Toulouse Mai 2000
- Giussani S. – “La prima visita del cucciolo e del gattino: un’opportunità per il medico veterinario”, Rivista di zootecnia e veterinaria pp 17 – 24 Volume 33 n° 1, luglio 2005
- Giussani S. - “I cuccioli orfani” - Veterinaria n° 21, gennaio 2006: 14 – 16
- Holmes J. - “La teoria dell’attaccamento “, Raffaello Cortina Editore, Milano 1994
- May F. - “Peut – on parler d’attachement entre le chiot et l’homme?”, Atti de “L’enfant et l’animal”, Bordeaux 2003
- Pionnie N., Atger F. - “Attachement et psychopathologie” - Perspectives Psy, Volume 42 , N° 2, avril-juin 2003, pp 129-133
- Pageat P. – “Patologia comportamentale del cane” – Edizione Le Point Veterinaire Italie Milano 2000
- Pageat P. - “La communication chimique dans l’univers des carnivores domestiques”, Le Point Vétérinaire, vol. 28, n° 181 1997
- Pageat P. - “Les pheromones d’attachement “ - Atti del “The second world meeting on Etology” Lyon 1999
- Pageat P. - “Aspects theoriques du developpement comportemental du chiot “ – Cours du GECAF, Nice 2002
- Pierrehumbert B. - “L’attachement et les relations homme – animal”, Atelier Lyon, janvier 2003